Energy in equals Energy out.
and so does
Energy out equals Energy in.
Energy in equals Energy out plus work is more technically correct. Work is a form of energy only it has been converted. Energy can never be destroyed nor created only transformed. This led to Einstein's E = M C^2. To use one of my previous phrases: Energy and mass are the same thing only different.
The study of thermal dynamics started with Joule in 1843. Engines were a some what recent advancement of humanity and people started to study the effect of energy-work relationships. The term thermodynamics came from a thermal device which is moving mechanically in nature. Three laws were developed with an extra forth law as an after thought. All the thermodynamic laws are based on what is termed a heat cycle.
1. Whenever a system undergoes a cyclic change, the algebraic sum of the work transfers is proportional to the algebraic sum of the heat transfers.
2. The second law of thermodynamics is the directional law. No process is possible whose sole result is the absorption of heat from a reservoir at a single temperature and the conversion of this heat completely into mechanical work.
3. The third law of thermodynamics is sometimes called the law of entropy. The entropy of any given system attains the same finite least value for every state of least energy.
0. The zeroth law of thermodynamics is two systems in thermal equilibrium with a third are in thermal equilibrium with each other. This law of thermodynamics has a problem. What constitutes equilibrium?
One of the most important terms which the study of thermodynamics has developed it the concept of temperature. The temperature of a system is the property which determines whether or not a system is in thermal equilibrium.
The above energy equation holds true for the Earth's perturbation of space. The Earth's perturbation of space is the shock front, and the electrical disturbance trailing the Earth away from the Sun. If there is a sever electromagnetic perturbation in plasma space then energy is required for the perturbation. If a perturbation exists then work had to be performed.
The plasma shock front is 12 Earth's radii from Earth, the shock wave dissecting the Earth is 25 radii and the maximum shock wave envelope is over 100 radii in diameter at its thickest point.
The current sheet makes up a large part of the electrical disturbance trailing the Earth. This sheet is made up of two polarized current loops quickly expanding to 10 radii wide and extending to about 200 radii behind the Earth. Current flows in these loops has a sheet about 4 radii thick at the plum or thick part of the outer current sheet with a density of about 100 amps per square kilometer.
To find the resistance of solar space, take the ohms-meter * distance separating the conductors times the area of the conductors. For example; the resistance between two plates of 1 square meter separated by 1 meter in solar space would be about 3 x 10^-7 ohms.
The ohm-meter value is easier to work with for plasma resistances because the volume resistance and the volume current relationship cancel. To find the power required to set up the sheet current first, find the distance of resistance which is approximately 2 * (s) where s = 2*ã*R + center current of both loops.
Resistance = 6.56 x 10^8 * 3 x 10^-7 = 1.97 x 10^2 ohm-m^2
Area = 4 r * 200 r = 800 r^2 = 3.25 x 10^16 m^2
Total resistance for all the current = 1.97 x 10^2 / 3.25 x 10^16 = 6.05 x 10^-15 ohms.
Total current for the area = 3.25 x 10^16 * 100 x 10^-6 = 3.25 x 10^12 a
Total power = I^2*R = (3.25 x 10^12)^2 * 6.05 x 10^-15 = 6.3 x 10^10 w.
The power generated in the outer current sheet, as figured here, is low compared to NASA's estimation of the trailing current loop. NASA estimates that the power requirement of the trailing current loop in the plasma continuum is on the order of one terawatt which is about one hundred times grater than calculated here.
1 terawatt = 1 x 10^12 watts
Being low by a factor of 100 is actually very good because there is many ways to being wrong, one is the estimate of the current sheet. The current sheet becomes appreciably thinner in the neutral current sheet which is the horizontal component of the outer tail currents.
Besides the current sheet, there is the Bow Shock. The Bow Shock is a compression of plasma sunward of Earth.
Another good reason is the type of plasma temperature used in the calculation. The reason the error was left in is to give an idea of the magnitude of the problem and the concept of upper and lower limits.
The resistance of space on the outside of the Bow Shock is proportional to an electron thermal temperature of 50 electron volts. On the inside the thermal temperature of the electron is only .1 eV. This gives a resistance of 3 x 10^-3 ohm-meters, which is a power of 10^4 higher than 3 x 10^-7 ohm-meters. Thus, the power in the I^2*R system can be as high as 6.3 x 10^14 watts; 2.27 x 10^1^8 Joules per hour, 5.44 x 10^19 Joules per day; This is very close to the energy to alter the speed of the Earth someway by .01 milliseconds.
Here a terawatt is a good estimation of the power dissipated in the tail to the Bow Shock and who am I to say NASA is wrong.
It can also be suggested that a good amount of energy goes to make up the Van Allen belts, enough energy to create light. Since the energy lost in a heat cycle is the sum of all the heat lost in the thermal cycle, the sum can be said to be somewhere between 2 and 10 terawatts.
Another part of defining the Earth's thermal system is to define what type of system it is. Several terms have been developed to define the various types of mechanical - thermal systems. Most all the terms deal with pressure, temperature, and volume. However, some systems don't quite work nice and neatly. But one thing they all have in common is there must be a process. Something must happen.
Adiabatic process: A process that takes place where no heat enters or leaves the system.
Isochoric process: A process where the volume remains constant.
Isothermal process: A process where the temperature remains constant.
Isobaric process: A process where the pressure remains constant.
Throttling process: A process where a constant high pressure substance seeps through an extremely small area into a lower pressure area without a transfer of heat.
Actually, depending on view point, the Earth's system is a bit of all the above processes but adiabatic. Even the throttling process can be found in the Earth's system from volcanic action. However, when considering the Sun-Earth system the process which seems to best describe the arrangement is isothermal. Therefore, from the first law of thermodynamics, all the heat is transformed into work.
Since plasma follows the thermal dynamic laws, another approximation to energy work relationship can be the Carnot engine. Although plasma is not an ideal gas, the Carnot engine relationship itself is only an approximation. This approximation gives the maximum efficiency that an engine can have if it is between two temperatures.
To be technically correct it is from the hottest hot to the coldest cold. In the case with the glob there are two areas of thermal equilibrium. The surface temperature is about 300 degrees (actually much colder in some places) Kelvin is the coldest cold. The glob's mantle and core make up a large percent of the material of the glob so their thermal conditions must be considered, the temperature is 6000 degrees Kelvin and can be as high as 12,000 degrees. The hot temperature is that of the solar wind since it is the largest hot source. That is 5000 eV or 5.8x10^7 K.
This gives several hot to cold conditions. This is the condition of the hot plasma to the glob's surface and to it's core. In order to get a reasonable picture of the conditions, both values will be considered. And, just to do it, I through in the average between the two conditions.The whole point of this exercise is to determine if there is sufficient thermal difference to account for any work being done required to power the Earth's spin and trajectory.
The percentage of maximum work efficiency is:
Surface sink = 0.99999982 Plasma Core sink = 0.99989655
The maximum work from the losses is:
This set of approximations results in drastic differences between the best possible case and the worst possible case. 86164 seconds is based upon the 365.25 day year. Multiplying in the length of time of a day in seconds times the work gives joules a day of mechanical energy which can be produced from the thermal environment.
The condition for work on the surface of the Earth:
Maximum power = 6.3 x 10^14 watts
Maximum work efficiency = 5.5 x 10^6
Time = 86164 seconds/day
Equals = 2.98 x 10^26 joules/day
The condition of least power and lowest efficiency:
Lowest power = 6.3 x 10^10 watts
Lowest efficiency = 9.6 x 10^3
Time = 86164 seconds/day
Equals = 5.2 x 10^19 joules/day
The average condition using the core sink:
Power = 10^12 watts
Efficiency = 9.6 x 10^3
Time = 86164
Equals = 8.2 x 10^20 joules/day
The average condition and lowest efficiency seems to correspond to the necessary power required to torque the Earth. The maximum power condition is more than enough to torque the Earth. The least power and lowest efficiency is not quite enough to do the job but is very close. It could be argued that the figures here are only estimations therefore, the energy available is questionable. However, one should note that the tail disturbance is much larger than those figures used here. As an example; the August 17, 1966 launch of the Pioneer 7 interplanetary spacecraft to measure the megnetosphere tail aberration, showed the tail to be in excess of 1000 Earth radii down stream, and about 100 Earth radii wide. This was twice as wide as expected.
If we wish to really test the system, the hottest hot would be that of the fusion reaction area of the Sun, about 21 Mev, and the coldest cold of deep space of -273 degrees or 0 degrees Kelvin. This is the potential to do some real work; approximately 6 x 10^31 Joules/day. The glob is simply in between these two thermal potentials.
With all due respect to vectored angular momentum, it is time to imagine what the Glob is.
Imagine the blob of water in space as shown by astronauts when they are drinking. The water stays as a spherical mass while the astronaut drinks from the center anywhere around it.
The Earth basically is a fluid and semi-fluid plastic glob flying in space about the Sun, an orbiting fluid glob incased in a thin rock type egg shell. The center of the glob is very hot, most the interior is hot, and the outer surface is cool.
Chemical composition of the center of the glob strongly suggests Iron which is a ferromagnetic material. If the core of the Earth is Iron then the words for magnetic coupling are "Very Good."
The Earth is akin to a thinly crusted egg.
The outer part of the egg is made up of a spherical silicate-oxide material, and many other elements, to make what is commonly called rock. With a % iron.
The inner core perplexes many people. It could be solid it may be nickel, it may be a plasmatic change. Extensive seismic studies indicate a solid abrupt inner core.
Applying Saha's equation to the core of the Earth using Iron's ionization energy and 1 electrons per atom recombination rate, the percent plasma at 6000 degrees would be:
Volume = 4/3 * 
(6378388)^3 = 1.08 x 10^21 m^3
Number Atoms/ cm^3 = 6.0220943 x 10^23 * 7.874 / 55.847 = 8.45 x 10^22
Number Atoms = 1.08 x 10^21 * 10^6 * 8.45 x 10^22 = 9.12 x 10^49
Plasma Atoms from Saha equation = 3.45 x 10^-30 %
Recombination = 7.8 eV / Atom = 2.5 x 10^21 eV.
Recombination time for Iron at the pressure and temperature of the center of the Earth have not been measured. At least I can't find the value.
Generally speaking, the recombination rate is proportional to the amount of available atoms, which the excited electron can hit, or the mean free path between collisions. The density in the center of the Earth is about 10^22 atoms/cm^3. Compared to 3.4 x 10^-3 plasma atoms per cubic centimeter, the possibility of collision is very fast because the mean free path is really the distance between atoms. True, it requires an ion to recombine with, but Iron is a good conductor and electrons move very fast.
Measurements of weakly ionized heavy materials like mercury, thermal heating generally requires about 1 millisecond to distribute the thermal energy. Therefore, a per unit time can be assumed to be about 1 millisecond.
E(thermal) = 2.5 x 10^21 / 10^-3 = 2.5 x 10^24 eV/second= 2.5 x 10^24 * 1.6 x 10^-19 = 4.0 x 10^5 joules/second= * 86164 = 3.5 x 10^10 joules/day.
This is the minimum required energy just to maintain the extremely weak Iron plasma. The energy dissipated here is strictly nonradiating. Also, this does not take into account the energy required for the second ionization level which is about 10^7 joules/day.
Should radiation be a factor, which at the mantle-core junction it is, the recombination time becomes shorter. Also, there are less electrons due to the electron cloud effect to recombine. Thus, both the energy per unit time and the percentage of plasma goes up.
Taking into account the pressure and temperature at that volume, iron would make the number of atoms in the volume be less. However, if this is the case then there would be a larger percentage of plasmoids in the volume thus, increasing the necessary energy required for the core volume.
The interesting part of this problem is "How is the energy developed?"
First we shall state a condition which seems to exist. The thermal activity of the Earth's core is in a steady state. If there were massive pressure, temperature or volume changes, then this would not be the case. The Earth's core does not seem to change radically. Its volume seems to be relatively constant. A few changes once in a while but, very very small. Although no one can verify this, it seems that the pressure and temperature are also relatively constant.
The second condition is, which way is heat flowing? This can be determined simply. The crust of the Earth is cool compared to the core, therefore, heat must be flowing from the core to the crust. The second law of thermodynamics. In this environment, convection would be a good form of transport media.
Also, the density of the plasma iron is about 1 plasmoids per cubic meter, which is very, very, small, compared to the number of atoms totally in a cubic meter.
Applying the thermal dynamic rule of the change in force, equals the change in energy, minus the entropy times the change in temperature, minus the temperature times the change in entropy:
The temperature of most the core atoms is 6000 degrees, Kelvin and the temperature of a plasmoid in the core is about 90,000 degrees Kelvin.
We can say that a force must be applied to a core atom to generate a plasmoid atom. Lets assume the core is rotating at a constant speed, and the entropy at the start of plasmazation is zero. Therefore, the average force on any atom is zero throughout the process because there is no compression. If the low temperature atoms induced plasma, then energy would be required, thus, the change in energy from the transformation would be negative. Consequently, the T * dS part of the equation would need to be negative and the only way this will occur is if the change in entropy were negative. Negative entropy cannot exist. Therefore, there must be some change in force to create the plasma atoms.
The only hard physical forces in a rotating system, which can cause the necessary change, are those of friction and compression. One may argue that there is friction possibly between the mantle and core or between core and inner core. However, this would mean that there is also a very large difference in rotational velocity between the two bodies. This would show up in seismic readings. The amount of compression required for this action would be very noticeable at the Earth's surface too. Since the Earth's surface is expanding slightly, this would mean that compression is not occurring. Heat is flowing out of the Earth's core, toward the surface, and out from the surface.
Tectonic plate movement supports the theory, the Earth's crust is being pushed apart in the center of the oceans. Any one seeing Hilakewia bubble away or Yellow Stone smoke can believe heat is coming out of the Earth. Volcanos imply the throttling process. Therefore, for the amount of energy required to maintain the Earth's core temperature must be something other than friction and compression. However, no matter what, the energy must be coming from somewhere to support the high temperature.
To state this another way, If heat naturally flows from high to low, (hot to cold) then 6000 degree atoms will not create 90000 degree atoms without force being applied. Again, the second law. Since the core is physically at a steady state with heat flowing from the core to the surface there must be a force induced into the core.
The only single solitary explanation left is that of electromagnetic induction. The Earth is continually emersed in an environment which is highly electromagnetic. There seems to be a constant flow of high energy particles passing by the Earth. The only way these high energy particles are going to be driven is electromagnetic too. It would stand to reason, that the same driving force pushing the high energy particles, would push on the Earth too.
An electromotive force is a force which is electric in nature. An electromotive force can supply power in the form of electromagnetic induction. In the case of conventional electromotive action, power is developed by a potential source, which can supply a current, which supports a magnetic field. When dealing with this form of electromotive force, the current flow is in a conductor which has sever limits. An electromotive force does not have to be limited to work. Electromotive action by nature is three dimensional but humans control the action in a linear two dimensional way.
The Earth, besides being a hot glob flying through space, also resembles a semiconductor too. Silicon semiconductors typically are called diodes. The Earth's mantle is fundamentally silicon. In a typical transistor, there areas where elements of electron or proton excesses are doped into a silicon crystal. A dopant with a proton short its outer electron is said to be a P type dopant and an dopant with an extra electron is N type dopant. When these two different crystals are in close proximity to each other, there becomes a layer where the electrons from the opposite get trapped. The area where something is missing, either the required electrons for a complete element or the protons required for electrical balance is called the depletion region. In this area at the molecular level there exists a voltage difference which is called the potential-hill. Because, this is a crystal structure the protons are fixed and only the electrons can move. When a potential is applied to the ends of the crystal a current will flow if the potential is in the same direction as the potential-hill or current will not flow if it is bucking the potential-hill. Thus, a one way device in electronics.
The difference between diodes and the Earth's mantle is diodes are solid and the Earth is semiliquid. This makes the rules different. However, fundamentally both are made of silicon. Silicon and oxygen are basically nonconductors hot or cold. Cold, silicon is typically called glass which is a good insulator. Meaning, electron mobility is very poor.
A little iron and aluminum make up a substantial portion of the mantle too. This in effect is a N type dopant as metals typically have mobile electrons but the rules are different. However, iron dopant would increase the mobility of electrons within this soup. The Earth's core is mostly hot liquid iron. Thus, the core should be a great conductor.
There seems to be a sharp boundary between the mantle and core. Therefore, from time to time, highly excited electrons are going to be shot into the silicon mantle and become trapped for a while. Additionally, because there is a 2 volt per kilometer space potential, this effect of pushing the core's electrons into the mantle would be increased.
The result of trapped electrons in the mantle would have a higher charge velocity distance relationship for the mantle than for the oppositely charged core moving in the same direction. Such a variance would result in a loop current in the mantle forced by the Earth's spin which should develop a magnetic field. However, the energy of the field would be at the expense of spin and if it were the sole source of the magnetic field, would stop the Earth in 15,000 years. Actually, this is just a small effect.
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