Fusing is the connection of two or more items. In the case of nuclear fusion it is the connection of two or more nuclei of atoms to form a third atom.
Typical Formulas:
Many more fusion reactions can occur. During this reaction energy is released in the form of radiation. Materials other than hydrogen will undergo a fusion reaction. Several types of reactions can occur, all of which release radiation, however, some reactions release positrons which are later annihilated. [A positron is a positively charged electron. (Yes, there is a negatively charged proton called antiproton) Annihilation means the particle is consumed with another electron and creates a photon or radiation.]
If each of two atoms had a mass of 2.01355 amu before the reaction and after the reaction, the single atom weighed 4.00150 amu then 0.02560 amu's of mass got lost. It is said that this mass is converted to energy.
The term nucleosynthesis is given to the creation or synthesis of elements by fusion. It is proposed that elements from hydrogen up to iron will combine and yield energy. That is; the mass weight of iron is always less than the weight of the combining elements. After iron, the weight of the element is heavier than the combining elements, thus energy is required to synthesis heavier elements than iron.
Oakridge National Laboratory states that a 100 megaton hydrogen nuclear burst, 500 kilometers (300 miles) above the Earth's surface, would result in an impulse electric field at the surface, directly under the burst, of 10^4 volts per meter and a magnetic field of about 0.01 webers per square meter. The pulse duration is approximately 6 x 10^-8 seconds to peak and 2 x 10^-7 seconds to decay to normal.
The government performed these experiments, to determine what the effects of an intense electric field would be on electronic guidance systems. The term given to the process is EMP for ElectroMagnetic Pulse. To protect systems from EMP is called radiation hardening. The field experiments showed that the radiated electric field originally expanded spherically from the origin, until it interacted with the atmosphere, which altered the field somewhat. Limited experiments on Earth with fusion reactions yield one fact. There is most definitely an intense electric field associated with nuclear reaction. True to the rules of an expanding electrical field there is a magnetic component and electric component associated with the reaction. The nature of the wave is pulsating direct current. It has been shown that the fields move out away from the source. In effect, the fields are traveling or moving. The electromagnetic wave moves out into space until it is affected by some other media.
There is a conclusion which can be drawn from these tests. One fact is that the resulting electromagnetic field is not the result of a single H-H reaction, but that of many reactions. Another fact is that not all the material in a H-H reaction is fused. Much of the material simply flies apart. One can associate the two facts and state: as the number of reactions increases due to increased pressure & temperature, the field intensities increase; as the number of reactions decrease due to separation, the field intensities decrease. Thus, it can be concluded, the net field produced is the sum of the reactions at any given time.
The energy given off in a fusion reaction is a pulsed energy wave. The energy level increases from zero to a maximum value then decreases to zero as the reaction completes. There is a slight undershoot but it by no means equals the amount of the main pulse energy. The main form of energy liberated is electromagnetic. The two atoms themselves have a volume, therefore the initial release of energy has a discrete starting size. This pulse radiates outward in a spherical pattern. In the Sun, as the first reaction pulse radiates outward, an instant latter another reaction pulses another wave outward. Then another reaction wave radiates outward; so on and so on. The effect is a constant set of waves radiating outward.
Using the inverse square law approximation; the volts per meter times distance squared equals the one meter point charge source. For the H-bomb test:
V/m = (k * q) source = ((500,000)^2) * 10^4) = 2.5 x 10^15 volts per meter.
Two types of thermal nuclear reactions may occur; impact fusion and catalytic fusion. Impact fusion is that of a random or resonant thermal crash reaction between two protons. Impact fusion is referred to as Hot Fusion. Hot fusion is that of H-bomb's or the Sun's fusion where the atoms are accelerated toward each other by a thermal means with sufficient force to overcome the repulsive force. Catalytic fusion is the reduction of repulsive barrier between two positively charge nuclei due to an extraneous condition. Such an extraneous condition could be the addition of muons to the hydrogen element. Muons are very heavy electrons. These heavy electrons cause the electron orbital to be closer together and this allows closer nuclei between atoms. Another type of catalytic fusion reaction said to have been done experimentally is having nuclei within close proximity within a crystalline structure of palladium, titanium, or other material. Theoretically this is where the atoms repulsive barrier is reduced by an electron cloud around it, thus, the chance of quantum tunneling may occur. Generally, catalytic fusion is referred to as Cold Fusion. Both these types of reactions are the ability of the atoms nuclei penetrate the coulomb charge forces of the proton causing a new heavier element.
Assuming 10^6 of the 10^19 times the burning mass of the bomb for the Sun's reactions were of the hot type, then the 10^6 difference in mass burning would go into creating an electric intensity. The volts per meter wave front would be about 2.5 x 10^21 volts per meter. At Earth 150 x 10^9 meters away, the volts per meter would be about 2.5 x 10^21 / (150 x 10^9)^2 or 0.1 volts per meter.
The Sun is a huge nuclear furnace where elements are fused and energy is radiated. Tremendous amounts of energy is released in a hydrogen reaction, however, the gigantic mass of the Sun holds the particles close to the Sun by an equally tremendous gravitational force. The nuclear reaction is said to be generated in the core of the Sun which has a radius of 2.3 x 10^8 meters. Thus, a large portion of the energy would be absorbed prior to leaving the Sun's surface. The various groups of stars reflects the type of burning that is going on within the star. For our star, the Sun, the primary element being burnt is hydrogen.
Some differences between a hydrogen bomb burst and the Sun are: The bomb burns itself up in nanoseconds, where as the Sun burns continuous day and night. The bombs material expands outward and dissipates, where as the Sun's material is trapped by the Sun's gravity. The total gas energy pressure in the Sun maintains a constant fusing of particles while the "H" bomb's pressure increases momentarily and fly's apart in time. The average total pressure in the center of the Sun is estimated at about 100 times that of the 100MT big one. Add the increased total element gas pressure, burning 10^19 times the material as a "H" bomb in any given instant, and in a steady state, gives an electromagnetic output in excess of 10^19 times the electromagnetic force output of the "H" bomb in a steady state. ^At ground zero, 100 megaton "H" bomb; the high heat flash, big light and wiped out electronics are all caused by the creation of an intense electric force. The heat flash is caused by zapping molecular structures of the atmosphere and conventionally radiating. The 4000 to 6000 angstrom light we can see is caused by exciting electrons in adjacent atoms. Blasting the FET's & Bipolar's is the effect of a changing coulomb wave front. The Sun's coulomb wave front is constant but the Sun's light is caused by the same reaction as the bombs.
4 Million Tons of mass discrepancy generated electromagnetic wave front per second, seconds in, and seconds out, is a lot of power. Because the Sun is a point source in the universe, there is only one place the electric wave can go, and that way is spherically outward, with all the little spherical wave fronts integrating into one spherical wave front, forming a uniform spherical electric wave front generated outward. The affect would be similar to that of a direct current. As this wave front cut another medium there would be some sort of effect on that medium at the boundary.
The effects of the Sun's nuclear reaction are measurable in space. At a distance exceeding 50 radii of the Earth the electric field difference is measured to be 2 volts per kilometer. There is also an associated electric current within the solar wind. The 2 volts per kilometer could be the result of the dynamic resistance of space. The moving wave front is the Electric drive force causing the current to flow in the solar wind. In effect, it is a pulsating expanding electromagnetic field in a continuous state.
If a zero to .1 volt/meter wave front over the entire surface of Earth, hit Earth, it would destroy us on Earth. However, all actions have a reaction. Energy waves are no different. Therefore, a constantly expanding electric force would have a constantly resisting electric force. In transformers this is referred to as Counter Electro Motive Force. The Earth would be immersed between the two electric forces and the moving wave would not impact the Earth directly. Earth's surface is protected from the incident wave by the counter electro motive force. Resulting in a tear of the space flux flow.
The proton-proton energy reaction is a bit different than of a state change of an electron. In a proton fusion reaction the possibility of a light particle is created. Because of this possibility, some scientist imagined a particle called a neutrino. The cross section of a neutrino is said to be about 10^-44 cm^2. The mean free path of the neutrinos is said to be about 10^20 cm, which is equal to 10^9 solar radii. Therefore, neutrinos zip out from the Sun from the point of the reaction without being absorbed by the Sun's matter. It is said that burning hydrogen in the above equation produces two neutrinos. The biggest argument for neutrinos is "where has the mass gone?" In other words, neutrinos were created simply to explain something. Their not the result of scientific testing. No one has detected a neutrino. Mass totally converted to electromagnetic energy would explain where the mass is going just as easily.
To combine hydrogen into helium requires two reactions to complete. One reaction gives off 4MeV the other 17.6MeV, for a total of 21.6MeV. Each reaction is a separate occurrence. This is how the H-bomb works. As the protons come together there is a start of an electric charge variance. As the elements start to fuse, the electric charge variance creates an electromagnetic variant for intermediate element. The intermediate elements then react creating the final element. Each reaction creates a unique energy combination and photon. Detection of these photons has been done experimentally. Both reactions cause a electromotive pulse. Experimentally, two discrete frequency photons and a electromagnetic pulse have been measured. Contrary, neutrinos have not been detected from experimental tests.
Directly proportional to the sum of the types of reactions at any given instant, is the electric coulomb wave shock. Indirectly proportional to the square of the distance is the incident radiant energy. The media changes the electric wave front proportionally. The elements in the Sun are mostly plasmatic. The total pressure of the Sun is that derived from the sum of the pressures created by gravity, photons, electrons, and electromagnetic wave gyrations. The temperature is very hot and hotter yet in the center. It is interesting to note that gravity at the Sun's temperature alone would be of sufficient force necessary to initiate a nuclear reaction. Thermal pressure from past reactions add greatly to the force for new reactions. This leaves us with the question "How did it all start?"
In round numbers, this is 10^15 times 10^21 or 10^36 volts per meter. Given a distance of 1.47 x 10^11 meters, inversely proportional yields 1/3 x 10^-22, an incident volts per meter of 3.3 x 10^13 next to Earth. 10^12 volts per meter is sufficient potential voltage to produce an astronomical affect as the magnetic field on the planet Earth. We can also make a simple analogy here. That is; the electric field of 10^13 volts per meter is to 10^4 volts per meter as "X" is to 0.01 webers per square meter. "X" being the magnetic flux at the Earth's location. Thus, X is 10^7 webers per square meter. This is a substantial magnetic field too. In the scheme of things, the "H" bomb is but a cap pop in a toy gun compared to the electric force output of the Sun.
A question which arises is "Why haven't we measured such fields?" This goes back to Gauss's Laws and not knowing what one is measuring at the time. A closed current carrying circuit within a 10,000 volt static field would be unaffected by the surrounding static field. Another condition which makes this hard to detect is the effects of plasma. Plasma, which is discussed in the another chapter, has the capability of insulating a charge and dispersing an electric field uniformly. However, one could say no media is a perfect conductor and there must be some resistive and dielectric effect from the media. Since the Sun is a point source located away from the Earth, one should be able to measure the difference in potential caused by the resistive and dielectric effect of the medium. This difference was measured and turns out to be 2 volts per kilometer.
Several scientists argue that Cold Fusion is the source of the Earth's core heat. Theoretically, this is possible. However, three factors must be considered. First, the number of reactions required to support the energy necessary to maintain the Earth's core thermal equilibrium. Second, the source of hydrogen. Third, where is the helium going? To maintain sufficient energy, the number of reactions would be easily measured at the surface in the form of radio waves and/or radioactive count. Hydrogen is not going into the system, thus, only trapped hydrogen would be the source, and that would have been purged long ago. Lastly, helium in sufficient volume is not an ash product from volcanos, which it would be if Cold Fusion were to heat the Earth's core. It has also been argued that Cold Fusion is the source of Jupiter's radio emissions. Again, theoretically possible. But, it would cause thermal runaway, igniting the metallic hydrogen, and we would have another Sun. Cold Fusion can easily explain the Sun's initial ignition however.
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