The word electric comes from the Greek word elektron. The force of a charged body was known to the Greeks 600 B.C. They knew, rubbing right materials together created a force. The main material used was amber which is the Greek word elektron.
In the Realm, electronic forces are far stronger than gravitational forces. Still unknown is the exact nature of the force. Science has been aware of electric forces for years. The result of mans delve into the realm of electronic forces yielded: Radio's, TV's, Radar's, Computers, Oven's, Toaster's, Hydrogen Bombs and Nuclear Power Plants.
The basic concept is that of electrons and protons in an atom. Although no one has seen an atom, its presence is known. Three large parts to an atom; the electron, neutron and proton. Each of the atoms components have a mass and a charge. The electron, for no better reason, negative was specified as a negative charge, and the proton was opposite the electron in characteristics so it was given the positive charge. The neutron seems to be a zero charge.
Very early experiments led to two conclusions. One, like charges repel and two, unlike charges attract. More experiments led to more questions. To further measure electric and mass forces we are experimenting with Collider's and Super Collider's.
| Element | Mass | Charge |
| Electron | 1.109 x 10^-31 Kgm | -1.6 x 10^-19 |
| 1.673 x 10^-27 Kgm | +1.6 x 10^-19 | |
| 1.675 x 10^-27 Kgm | 0 |
There is of course the forces of mass acting on these bodies. The believed diameter of the nuclei of the atom, assuming it is a sphere, is approximately 10^-14 meters. Because the number of protons within a nucleus is different with each element, the true nucleus size is relative to the element. The true nucleus structure, except for hydrogen, contains neutrons too.
The electron seems to orbit the atomic nucleus. The diameter of the electron's orbit for a general atom is in the order of 2 to 3 x 10^-10 meters. This is about 10,000 times the size of the nucleus. Relating orbitals of the Planets and Sun, it is 69 times the size for the diameter of the Sun compared to the orbit of Mercury. Mercury is 140 times closer to the Sun than an electron is to the nucleus.
Each element has a particular number of protons and an equal number of electrons surrounding the protons. If not, the element is an ion. There may also be neutrons in the nucleus with the protons. The elements atomic number is the number of protons and in the undisturbed state, with the appropriate number of electrons.
The electron has a state of energy associated with it. The states of energy relate to the Schrodinger and deBroglie equations. At rest the orbital position of the electron is as close to the nucleus as possible. To change orbitals the energy which must be supplied to the electron is in quantum amounts. The electron just doesn't gradually speed up to the next energy level, it jumps.
Massive amounts of atoms make up material. The type of material is dependent on the type of atoms and the way atoms are combined. Depending upon the material, electrons can be interactively moving about. If at the surface of the material, electrons are added or removed the material is said to be charged. The charge is directly proportional to the number of electrons which were transferred. The more electrons transferred the greater the charge. If there is the same number of electrons for protons, the material is neutral and the charge is zero.
If electrons are supplied to the material, the charge is said to be negative. If electrons are removed from the material, the charge is said to be positive.
Those materials, which outer valence electrons are not easily moved, are insulators and those which can easily move are conductors. Metal is a good conductor, gold, copper, silver and iron. None metals generally make good insulators, silicone (glass), rubber, air, or vacuum.
Creating the charge, transferring the charge, storing the charge and measuring the charge are the four steps to scientific evaluation.
Creation of a charge. The easiest way is to rub a rubber rod with fur. The reason an insulator works best in creating a static charge is the side electrons of the material will not transfer. Thus, a thin layer of electrons is all that is affected. To create a charge on metal with rubbing, one would need to work extremely hard. An example of static charge on metal; charge can be created by flying through the air in a plane. On the other hand, chemical reactions can generate a charge, such as a common battery.
Transferring a charge. This is done in two ways; contact and induction. Contact transfer is when a charged body touches another body and charges it. Induction is where a charged body comes close to an uncharged body and for some reason, the neutral body's electron can be moved in one direction not the other. Metal with its easily movable outer electrons makes a good conductor of a charge.
An example induced charge transfer; suppose there are three neutral metallic spheres which are insulated from each other and the world. If a statically charged wand were to touch one of the spheres, some of the charge world transfer to the sphere. Thus, the sphere would acquire a charge by contact. Now supposed the second and third spheres were touching each other, electrons can travel from one sphere to the other easily. If we bring the charged sphere close to the end of the neutral spheres, electrons will be attracted to the area close to the positively charged sphere. The charge sphere never touches the other two. Then we separate the two touching spheres, and we have a positive charge on one sphere and a negative charge on the other with no charge being removed from the first sphere. This is induced charge.
The ability to charge a sphere by contact is what got Charles Coulomb going. He concluded that if he took a charged body with an equal area and mass that was a good conductor. He could transfer the charge to another neutral body of the same size and mass yielding two charged bodies with half the total charge. Thus, he could divide charges proportionally.
Coulomb, using this proportional charge concept developed his law. Coulomb's law states that the force of attraction or repulsion between two charged bodies, is proportional to the product of the charges, and inversely proportional to the square of their distances.
This corresponds to Newtons law of gravity:
Comparing the mass gravitational force to the electric force shows that the electric force is tremendously greater than gravitational force.
is approximately 10^31; a big number!
Thus, the electric charge of a atom is predominant over gravitational attraction by a factor of 10^31 power. A factor of the to the thirty first would probably be referred to as over powering. However, it is not insignificant, as it counts when finding the atomic radius.
The radius of the inner orbits of a Bohr atom can be found for an electron charge qe. The number for the smallest orbit must have an angular momentum of:
Thus;
=
Storing a charge: This is the ability to maintain the electron imbalance. For metal spheres in air, the ability to keep a charge, depends on the ability of the atmosphere to transfer electrons. Basically, it is the ability to keep electrons from leaving the area of the charge.
Measuring a charge: Measuring a charge is done many different ways. Some are as complex as the Thomson Electron Beam experiment, to simple leaf electroscope. Unfortunately, the uncertainty principle prevails in measuring charges. Even with the simple electroscope, a small discrepancy occurs with each measurement.
The term force and the measurement of it does not explain it. Like gravity there is no explanation for the force. We can explain the mechanics better than the concept of a field. A field is said to exist if a force is exerted on a body placed at that point.
For a gravitational field: A gravitational field is said to exist at a point, if a force of mass attraction is exerted on another mass at that point.
For an electrical field: An electric field is said to exist at a point, if a force of electrical origin is exerted on a charged body placed at that point.
In general terminology for both gravitational and electrical, there are three general areas of a force field: the near field, the far field and insignificant effect. As an example; suppose we generate a large enough force on a body like ones head. The objects near the force, hair will be affected by the force, like standing on end. Objects far from the force will have negligible affects by the force, like someone else's hair standing 10 feet away. To objects as Quasars at the far ends of the Universe will not have much affect by this static electric field on ones head. Quasars at the far ends of the universe will be affected in some infinitesimal way by even the most insignificant force created on Earth.
A force is a vectored quantity. That is, it has an intensity and a direction. Thus, a force field is a vectored quantity. Therefore, an electric field is a vectored quantity. All vectored quantities follow vectored math.
Electric intensity is equal to the force acting on a positive charge divided by the quantity of charge.
Like gravity, an electric force field, which is associated with body 'A' and exerted on body 'B' also has a force exerted on 'A' by the electric force field associated with 'B'. To maintain a symmetrical charge distribution, the precise definition of the intensity at a point, is the limiting value of the force per unit charge at that point as the charge approaches zero.
If an electric field exists in a conductor, then a force is exerted on every charge in the conductor. When the charges move due to the force, it is termed electrical current and generally referred to as just current. Conversely, if there is no current in a conductor, there is no motion, therefore, the electric field in the conductor is zero.
In reality, in a conductor, the forces on the charges which move, are dependent upon their position within the atom. Because the position of the free electrons within a conductor are different per atom, the force on the electron is different at various points within the conductor.
It should be noted that current and electron motion are two different events. Current is the flow of a charge, and electron motion is the movement of an electron. A simple statement: "Charge flows, electrons migrate." It is true that the electron, because of its small mass, is the element that moves and carries the current. However, electrons do not travel in straight lines. They migrate from atom to atom and not always in the direction of the electric flux.
From the looks of electron migration, one would say that the current is not in a straight line within the conductor. This is true. What happens is, as one electron is removed from one end of a conductor, the electric imbalance causes an electron from another atom within the conductor, to move and restore the atomic charge balance. This continues until eventually an electron is supplied by an outside source. To the observer outside the system, and for all practical purposes for conduction in a wire, the flow of charge seems to be in a straight line. However, at the atomic level, charges are moving all over the place in all directions including backwards against the field.
To the outside observer, this charge flow concept can be seen from how pool balls move. If a line of pool balls were struck with the "Q" ball in the same direction as the line, the result is the last ball in the line leaves the line. The "Q" ball remains in the line. The energy has gone through the line of balls, and the initial hitting ball looses the energy and is stationary. As successive balls are fired toward the line, the initial "Q" ball migrates toward the far end and finally leaves the system.
Coulomb's law electric intensity at some point P, at a distance of r from the point:
The limit of the vector sum is a vector integral. Limits of integration must be assigned to include all the charges making the field.
To find the electric field intensity about a wire, one would have to assume an infinite length of wire. The same is true with a plane, its ends are infinite. However a sphere is by nature limited, thus, the electric field intensity within a sphere can be given as; E = k * q / R^2 where R is the distance between the outer point and the center of the sphere. E = 0 within the surface of the sphere. Experiments verify that to within 10^7 the inverse square law is in effect.
Generally, an electric field is about the point source in the form of a sphere. When two point sources are within close proximity the electric fields couple, like charges repelling and unlike fields attracting. Thus, the field is altered and is not spherical. However, as the distance from the coupled charges increases to a distance very large compared to the distance between coupled charges, the field again approaches spherical. This is the near field, far field effect.
Gauss derived the surface integral of the normal component of 'E' over any closed surface in an electrostatic field, equals 4-
-k times the net charge inside the surface. This allows one to find the charge on a surface due to a charge within the surface. The net result of a charge on the surface of an area due to a charge within the surface, is to totally distributed the charge on the surface, and the field within the surface is zero. From this a term 
was developed to write 4**k better, thus = 1 / 4**k = 8.85 x 10^-12 square coulombs per newton meter squared. This particular effect was given the name of Gaussian Surface.
There is one huge assumption here. That is: the charge is constant. Suppose the charge were increasing. Since the charge outside the surface is simply a constant times the charge inside the surface, the surface charge would simply increase too. However, to an observer outside the surface, the charge would seem moving closer to the observer. As we will see in the magnetic's chapter, this has it's own connotation. My whole concept of an expanding electrical wave is based upon Gausses theory and the Gaussian Surface. Remember this.
Going on with the development of electrical force, the affect of a particle between one or more field surfaces can now be developed. For example; what is the effect by two oppositely charged parallel plates just outside any charged conductor? However, I'd be off the subject because only a sphere is needed.
The line integral of electric intensity is another fundamental property of an electric field. Basically, the line integral of the electric intensity around any closed path in an electrostatic field, is zero.
The Earth, like an electron, stays within basic boundaries in it spherical orbit about the Sun. Since the Earth orbits about the Sun, the net result of the difference in locations is zero. However, at daily times, the Earth is at a different distance from the Sun. The charge measured by deep space measurements, is 2 volts per kilometer. Therefore, the same line integral Gauss derived for a force field with the Earth/Sun solar space can not be used for daily operations because the Earth takes a whole year to return to the same position . Thus;
There is another term which has been helpful when describing electric field, and that is the potential. The potential at any point of an electrostatic field is defined as the potential energy per unit charge at the point. The electric potential is in volts, named after Mr. Alessandro Volta, (1745-1827) Italian physicist.
Thus, the potential of a charged spherical conductor when 'r' is equal to or grater than the radius of the sphere is:
The change in potential energy is equal to the charge times the difference between the voltage at 'A' and the voltage at 'B'. If the voltage difference were one volt and the charged body is an electron then the quantity of energy is said to be one electron volt (eV). One electron volt equals 1.60 x 10^-19 joules.
The equivalent for the rest mass of an electron E = MC^2. or E = 9.108 V 10^-31 kgm * ((3 x 10^8 m/s)^2) = 82 x 10^-15 joules or 512,000 eV or 0.512 MeV.
A dielectric is a material which will store a charge and later return it. A dielectric is a nonconductor which has a charge induced in it. The ability of the molecule to restore a charge and to have a charge induced on it, is its dielectric coefficient. In a vacuum, where polarization equals 0, the displacement equals permittivity of space times the electric field.
Dielectric displacement is given by:
However, there is no such thing as a perfect vacuum, in deep space or any where else. Thus, D = K * * E, where 
= 
/ and î is the dielectric permittivity of the material.
The affect of a dielectric fluid of permittivity of î, if a conducting sphere of radius 'R', with a charge 'Q', were immersed in the dielectric, the charge at a distance 'r' from the center of the sphere would be to reduce by 1/ the force and intensity on the charge.
As shown from the diagram, the dielectric tends to neutralize the charge while stretching its electrons around the positive charge. This reduces the effect of on the charge at a distance from the source. In effect, the dielectric acts as an insulator of sorts.
The effect on an electric field is dependent upon time. For a T=0 impulse charge on a dielectric, the dielectric does not have a reverse electric field, therefore, the electric field at T=0 is unaffected by the dielectric and at T=infinity, the electric field intensity is proportional to 1/K. To put this another way, it takes time before the effects of the dielectric are felt at the distant point. This can be seen when dealing with capacitors. A capacitor in electronics is simply two plates about a dielectric. When the initial forcing voltage is applied to a capacitor, maximum current flows. When a sufficient time has gone by such the it can be considered infinite time, current through the capacitor stops.
The basic form of electrical capacity is give by:
This requires work. The amount of work required can be given by:
When the Sun and Earth are considered, there are two dielectrics which are between the fusion energy output and the Earth. The strongest dielectric is the outer layer of the Sun, and the largest is the space which is between the Sun's surface and the Earth.
As stated earlier, a current is a number of units moving per unit time in a give area. In the case of electricity, it is the number of charges moving per unit time. Thus, the definition of a coulomb per second is 1.6 x 10^19 charges moving across an area in one second. This is called 1 ampere in honor of a French physicist Mr. Andre Marie Ampere, (1775-1863). Therefore, current density is equal to the current divided by the area is equal the sum of the number free electron per unit volume, times the charge, times the velocity.
For example; supposed there is a copper wire carrying 10 amperes and it is 1 square millimeter thick, what is the drift velocity of the electrons? J' = 10 / 10^-3 = 10^4 amps/m^2. Since J = n * q * v, velocity v = J' / n * q because copper has approximately 10^29 free electrons per cubic meter v = 10^4 / (1.6 x 10^-19 * 10^29) or 6.25 x 10^-7 meters per second. The impulse velocity is close to the propagation of light or 3 x 10^8 meters per second^. The field impulse velocity is much faster electron migration.
In classical electronics, there are two fundamental terms of current flow; alternating current and direct current. Alternating current is where a current goes one way for a while then the other way for a while. Direct current is a constant current in one direction only. The technical term for current which is direct in nature but going on and off is termed pulsating direct current.
In a resistance device, there is less free electrons per cubic meter than in a conductor. Thus, to sustain a similar amperes current flow, electrons must move faster through the media. The discrepancy in energy levels is seen as heat. The relationship between the force driving the current is Ohm's Law. Named after a German physicist Georg Simon Ohm, (1787-1854).
Because a difference of potential will cause a conductor to move electrons in some direction. The ratio of the electric potential intensity and the current density is called
The power needed by the electrical system is equal to the driving force, times the mass moved, or P = V * I or power in watts,, equals volts times current. Many times V is referred to as E.
As measurements go, deep space current is about 20 particles per cubic centimeter. The bulk velocity is 200 to 800 thousand meters per second. The potential energy state of the particles is 1 to 5 thousand volts. Both the electrons and the protons are moving away from the Sun. The proportion of plasma ions is hydrogen 80% and helium 20%.
Supposing an electric field is created which instantaneously creates an outward moving electric field. The field travels outward from the center. As various electric fields gather and expand outward, their sum approaches a homogeneous field which is also moving outward. The field also, undergoes changes caused by the effects of the dielectrics.
The current density of negative charged particle in space 6.4 x 10^-8 to 2.5 x 10^-6 amperes per square meter.
There are two types of electric forces which create electric fields. One type is the electrostatic force which is the affect of an excess or depletion of electrons. The other type is a nonelectrostatic force which is electric energy by conversion. Ie. a battery is not a source of electricity, it is converter of chemical to electrical force, a transformer is a converter of magnetic energy to electrical force, and a fusion reaction's electric field released is a conversion of mass to electrical force.
The non-electrostatic force is called Electro Motive Force or EMF.
The total force is equal to the addition of (Es) electrostatic force and (En) nonelectrostatic force. Since the line integral of an Es force is zero and the line integral of an En force is a difference in potential per unit charge within any conductor, the total force on the charges is equal the potential difference in the nonelectorstatic force regardless of the static charge of the environment. EMF is also defined in volts.
To put the concept in perspective; suppose we have a body with a static charge of 10,000 volts. Within the body is a circuit with a battery connected to a resistor. Current will flow in the circuit equal to I = V/R. Ohms law for the circuit will prevail, regardless of the 10,000 volt static charge surrounding the circuit.
The laws of thermal dynamics dictate that all energy is accounted for. Energy is neither created or destroyed, just converted. The total variance of energy of any body at rest is zero. If a body undergoes an electrostatic change of charge, the surrounding environment must account for the charge change equally and oppositely. For every action there is a reaction. To maintain equilibrium in a closed spherical system, the reaction from the environment to a point source charge change must be equal to and opposite in value. Nature accounts for charge change energy equilibrium in terms of magnetic force.
An effect of a changing electric charge and corresponding magnetic reaction is that of electromagnetic radiation.
The fusion of atoms gives off energy in the form of electromagnetic energy radiating outward from the fusion point. During the time of fusion, the fusion point increases in static charge. At some time the electrostatic charge peaks and goes to zero again. There is a corresponding magnetic reaction to the change of static charge. The developed electrostatic charge is always the same polarity. The effect is similar to that of a single pulse of direct electric force.
Remember the way an electron migrates through the material? To create a current a bunch of electrons move all at once. As all these electron charges are moving, the all add up to one current. Yet, they all individual moving charges at the atomic level. When we move on to magnetic, we have to remember that the individual charges all sum up to one current.
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